Air Pollution in China: Mapping of Concentrations and Sources

China has recently made available hourly air pollution data from over 1500 sites, including airborne particulate matter (PM), SO₂, NO₂, and O₃. We apply Kriging interpolation to four months of data to derive pollution maps for eastern China. Consistent with prior findings, the greatest pollution occurs in the east, but significant levels are widespread across northern and central China and are not limited to major cities or geologic basins. Sources of pollution are widespread, but are particularly intense in a northeast corridor that extends from near Shanghai to north of Beijing. During our analysis period, 92% of the population of China experienced >120 hours of unhealthy air (US EPA standard), and 38% experienced average concentrations that were unhealthy. China’s population-weighted average exposure to PM_2.5 was 52 μg/m³. The observed air pollution is calculated to contribute to 1.6 million deaths/year in China [0.7–2.2 million deaths/year at 95% confidence], roughly 17% of all deaths in China.     

Photosynthetic Light Responses May Explain Vertical Distribution of Hymenophyllaceae Species in a Temperate Rainforest of Southern Chile

Some epiphytic Hymenophyllaceae are restricted to lower parts of the host (<60 cm; 10–100 μmol photons m^-2 s^-1) in a secondary forest of Southern Chile; other species occupy the whole host height (≥10 m; max PPFD >1000 μmol photons m^-2 s^-1). Our aim was to study the photosynthetic light responses of two Hymenophyllaceae species in relation to their contrasting distribution. We determined light tolerance of Hymenoglossum cruentum and Hymenophyllum dentatum by measuring gas exchange, PSI and PSII light energy partitioning, NPQ components, and pigment contents. H. dentatum showed lower maximum photosynthesis rates (A_max) than H. cruentum, but the former species kept its net rates (A_n) near A_max across a wide light range. In contrast, in the latter one, A_n declined at PPFDs >60 μmol photons m^-2 s^-1. H. cruentum, the shadiest plant, showed higher chlorophyll contents than H. dentatum. Differences in energy partitioning at PSI and PSII were consistent with gas exchange results. H. dentatum exhibited a higher light compensation point of the partitioning of absorbed energy between photochemical Y(PSII) and non-photochemical Y(NPQ) processes. Hence, both species allocated energy mainly toward photochemistry instead of heat dissipation at their light saturation points. Above saturation, H. cruentum had higher heat dissipation than H. dentatum. PSI yield (YPSI) remained higher in H. dentatum than H. cruentum in a wider light range. In both species, the main cause of heat dissipation at PSI was a donor side limitation. An early dynamic photo-inhibition of PSII may have caused an over reduction of the Qa⁺ pool decreasing the efficiency of electron donation to PSI. In H. dentatum, a slight increase in heat dissipation due to acceptor side limitation of PSI was observed above 300 μmol photons m^-2s^-1. Differences in photosynthetic responses to light suggest that light tolerance and species plasticity could explain their contrasting vertical distribution.     

A Three-Dimensional Skeletal Reconstruction of the Stem Amniote Orobates pabsti (Diadectidae): Analyses of Body Mass,Centre of Mass Position,and Joint Mobility

Orobates pabsti, a basal diadectid from the lower Permian, is a key fossil for the understanding of early amniote evolution. Quantitative analysis of anatomical information suffers from fragmentation of fossil bones, plastic deformation due to diagenetic processes and fragile preservation within surrounding rock matrix, preventing further biomechanical investigation. Here we describe the steps taken to digitally reconstruct MNG 10181, the holotype specimen of Orobates pabsti, and subsequently use the digital reconstruction to assess body mass, position of the centre of mass in individual segments as well as the whole animal, and study joint mobility in the shoulder and hip joints. The shape of most fossil bone fragments could be recovered from micro-focus computed tomography scans. This also revealed structures that were hitherto hidden within the rock matrix. However, parts of the axial skeleton had to be modelled using relevant isolated bones from the same locality as templates. Based on the digital fossil, mass of MNG 10181 was estimated using a model of body shape that was varied within a plausible range to account for uncertainties of the dimension. In the mean estimate model the specimen had an estimated mass of circa 4 kg. Varying of the mass distribution amongst body segments further revealed that Orobates carried most of its weight on the hind limbs. Mostly unrestricted joint morphology further suggested that MNG 10181 was able to effectively generate propulsion with the pelvic limbs. The digital reconstruction is made available for future biomechanical studies.     

Mycelial elongation and sporulation of two fungi on amended media in light or dark

Botrytis allii andCollectotrichum dematium are onion pathogens which can infect in the field and cause decay in storage. Some phenolics can hinder development of these fungi, but the effect of cytokinins is not clear. Cytokinins (kinetin or 6-benzyladenine) or phenolics (caffeic or chlorogenic acids) were added to agar at concentrations of 0 to 10^–3 M. Cultures were continuously irradiated with fluorescent light or maintained in the dark for 6 days. On unamended media, final mycelial elongation was 45 or 17.8 mm and sporulation was 28 or 10.6 × 10⁴ spores/ml forBotrytis andColletotrichum, respectively. ForBotrytis, mycelial elongation was slightly (5%) but significantly increased and sporulation increased by 21% by incubation on phenolics as compared to cytokinins. Mycelial extension ofColletotrichum was not affected by amendment. Sporulation ofColletotrichum on kinetin was 16 to 28% greater than on the other amendments. As amendments concentration increased elongation of mycelia of both fungi decreased. Sporulation ofBotrytis increased by 60% as amendment concentration increased from 0 to 10^–5 M and then decreased 25% at 10^–3 M. As amendment concentration increased from 0 to 10^–3 M, sporulation ofColletotrichum increased by 45%. Incubation in light increased mycelial extension 3 to 17% forBotrytis andColletotrichum respectively, and sporulation was increased approximately 78% for both fungi. These compounds do not appear to inhibit development of theseBotrytis orColletotrichum species in culture.     

Functional and genetic plasticities of the poliovirus genome: quasi-infectious RNAs modified in the 5'-untranslated region yield a variety of pseudorevertants.

Poliovirus RNA species with nucleotides 564 to 571 deleted or with a secondary structure domain (positions 564 to 629) replaced by a shorter irregular oligonucleotide have been engineered previously; these RNAs have been considered quasi-infectious (yielding a single late revertant plaque) and dead, respectively (E. Pilipenko, A. Gmyl, Y. Svitkin, S. Maslova, A. Sinyakov, and V. Agol, Cell 68:119-131, 1992). By using large amounts of these RNAs for transfections, revertant clones with a great variety of genetic changes (point mutations, insertions of foreign sequences, short or extended deletions) were isolated. The pattern of these changes supported the notion that an appropriately spaced oligopyrimidine-AUG tandem is important for efficient poliovirus RNA translation. Structural features within and around this tandem modulated the initiation efficiency. The functional and genetic plasticities of the poliovirus genome are briefly discussed.